NEW CRAFTS IN THE CITY
Let us look at some of the objects that were made and found in Harappan cities. Most of the things that have been found by archaeologists are made of stone, shell, and metal, including copper, bronze, gold, and silver. Copper and bronze were used to make tools, weapons, ornaments, and vessels. Gold and silver were used to make ornaments and vessels.
Many of these were made out of carnelian, a beautiful red stone. The stone was cut, shaped, polished and finally, a hole was bored through the center so that a string could be passed through it. Perhaps the most striking finds are those of beads, weights, and blades.
Notice how carefully and precisely these weights are shaped. These were made of chert, a kind of stone. These were probably used to weigh precious stones or metals.
The Harappans also made seals out of stone. These are generally rectangular and usually have an animal carved on them.
The signs on the top of the seal are part of a script. This is the earliest form of writing known in the subcontinent. Scholars have tried to read these signs but we still do not know exactly what they mean.
The Harappans also made pots with beautiful black designs.
Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from about 7000 years ago. Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects at Mohenjodaro. Archaeologists have also found spindle whorls, made of terracotta and faience. These were used to spin thread.
Many of the things that were produced were probably the work of specialists. A specialist is a person who is trained to do only one kind of work, for example, cutting stone, or polishing beads, or carving seals. Look at the figures 1,2,3,4 and see how well the face is carved and how carefully the beard is shown. This must have been the work of an expert craftsperson.
Not everybody could have been a specialist. We do not know whether only men were specialists or only women were specialists. Perhaps some women and men may have been specialists.
More to know about Faience
Unlike stone or shell, that is found naturally, faience is a material that is artificially produced. A gum was used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green.
Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels.
Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK
IN SEARCH OF RAW MATERIALS
Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally (such as wood, or ores of metals) or produced by farmers or herders. These are then processed to produce finished goods. For example, cotton, produced by farmers, is a raw material that may be processed to make cloth. While some of the raw materials that the Harappans used were available locally, many items such as copper, tin, gold, silver, and precious stones had to be brought from distant places.
The Harappans probably got copper from present-day Rajasthan, and even from Oman in West Asia. Tin, which was mixed with copper to produce bronze, may have been brought from present-day Afghanistan and Iran. Gold could have come all the way from present-day Karnataka, and precious stones from present-day Gujarat, Iran, and Afghanistan.
More to know
Most of Egypt is a dry desert, except for the lands along the river Nile.
Around 5000 years ago, kings ruled over Egypt. These kings sent armies to distant lands to get gold, silver, ivory, timber, and precious stones. They also built huge tombs, known as pyramids.
When they died, the bodies of kings were preserved and buried in these pyramids. These carefully preserved bodies are known as ‘mummies’. A large number of objects were also buried with them. These included food and drink, clothes, ornaments, utensils, musical instruments, weapons, and animals. Sometimes even serving men and women were buried with the rulers. These are amongst the most elaborate burials known in world history.
Do you think kings would have needed these things after death?
Activity:
Find Egypt in your atlas.
Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK
FOOD FOR PEOPLE IN THE CITIES
While many people lived in the cities, others living in the countryside grew crops and reared animals. These farmers and herders supplied food to craftspersons, scribes, and rulers in the cities. We know from remains of plants that the Harappans grew wheat, barley, pulses, peas, rice, sesame, linseed, and mustard.
A new tool, the plough, was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real ploughs, which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found. As this region does not receive heavy rainfall, some form of irrigation may have been used. This means that water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were growing.
The Harappans reared cattle, sheep, goat, and buffalo. Water and pastures were available around settlements. However, in the dry summer months, large herds of animals were probably taken to greater distances in search of grass and water. They also collected fruits like ber, caught fish, and hunted wild animals like the antelope.
Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK