HOW SOME MEN BECAME RULERS?
Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Some of the rajas we read about in Chapter 4(WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL) were probably chosen by the Jana, the people. But, around 3000 years ago, we find some changes taking place in the ways in which rajas were chosen. Some men now became recognised as rajas by performing very big sacrifices.
The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him.
The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne, or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya, also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as Shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals.
Activity:
Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation?
Source: This topic is taken from the NCERT TEXTBOOK
VARNAS
We have many books that were composed in north India, especially in the areas drained by the Ganga and the Yamuna, during this period. These books are often called later Vedic because they were composed after the Rigveda about which you learnt in Chapter 4(WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL). These include the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, as well as other books. These were composed of priests and described how rituals were to be performed. They also contained rules about society.
There were several different groups in society at this time — priests and warriors, farmers, herders, traders, craftspersons, labourers, fishing folk, and forest people. Some priests and warriors were rich, as were some farmers and traders. Others, including many herders, craftspersons, labourers, fishing folk and hunters, and gatherers, were poor.
The priests divided people into four groups, called varnas. According to them, each varna had a different set of functions.
The first varna was that of the brahmin. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices, and receive gifts.
In the second place were the rulers, also known as Kshatriyas. They were expected to fight battles and protect people.
The third was the vish or the vaishyas. They were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. Both the Kshatriyas and the vaishyas could perform sacrifices.
Last were the Shudras, who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform any rituals. Often, women were also grouped with the Shudras. Both women and Shudras were not allowed to study the Vedas. The priests also said that these groups were decided on the basis of birth. For example, if one’s father and mother were brahmins one would automatically become a brahmin, and so on. Later, they classified some people as untouchable. These included some crafts persons, hunters, and gatherers, as well as people who helped perform burials and cremations. The priests said that contact with these groups was polluting. Many people did not accept the system of varna laid down by the brahmins. Some kings thought they were superior to the priests. Others felt that birth could not be a basis for deciding which varna people belonged to. Besides, some people felt that there should be no differences amongst people based on occupation. Others felt that everybody should be able to perform rituals. And others condemned the practice of untouchability. Also, there were many areas in the subcontinent, such as the north-east, where social and economic differences were not very sharp, and where the influence of the priests was limited.
Why did people oppose the system of varnas?
Source: This topic is taken from the NCERT TEXTBOOK