SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini, and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British Indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other.

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

UPANISHADS

UPANISHADS

Around the time that the Buddha was preaching and perhaps a little earlier, other thinkers also tried to find answers to difficult questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one.

Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting near’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues.

Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, who was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal courts. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions.

One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII.

More to know:

Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads, the Chhandogya Upanishad.

Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul.

Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.

“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.

“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.

“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied.

“Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.” the beggar said.

“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded.

“If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked.

“You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”The sages said.

“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” the beggar said.

The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him.

How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him?

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

JAINISM

JAINISM

The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment.

He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi.

Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas, had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes.

It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food.

Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago.

More to know

Jaina

The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror.

Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira?

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

THE SANGHA

THE SANGHA

Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha, an association of those who left their homes.

The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha. However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as  bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer — beggar)

and bhikkhunis. They taught others and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha. Those who joined the sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans, and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha.

Activity:

List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5(KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC). Were there any similarities?

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK