SILAPPADIKARAM AND MANIMEKALAI

SILAPPADIKARAM AND MANIMEKALAI

Some of the best–known epics were written during this period. Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods.

Silappadikaram

A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice and destroyed the entire city of Madurai.

Description from the Silappadikaram

Here is how the poet describes Kannagi’s grief:

“O witness of my grief, you cannot console me. Is it right that your body, fairer than pure gold, lies unwashed here in the dust? Is it just that in the red glow of the twilight, your handsome chest, framed with a flower wreath, lies thrown down on the bare earth, while I remain alone, helpless and abandoned to despair? Is there no god? Is there no god in this country? Can there be a god in a land where the sword of the king is used for the murder of innocent strangers? Is there no god, no god?”

Manimekalai

Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi. These beautiful compositions were lost to scholars for many centuries, till their manuscripts were rediscovered, about a hundred years ago.

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

MEGHADUTA

MEGHADUTA

Other writers, such as Kalidasa, (about whom you read in Chapter 10(NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS)) wrote in Sanskrit.

Here is a verse from Kalidasa’s best-known poem, the Meghaduta, in which a monsoon cloud is imagined to be a messenger between lovers who are separated from one another.

See how the poet describes the breeze that will carry the cloud northwards:

“A cool breeze, delightful as it is touched

With the fragrance of the earth

Swollen by your showers,

Inhaled deeply by elephants,

And causing the wild figs to ripen,

Will blow gently as you go.”

Activity:

Do you think Kalidasa can be described as a lover of nature?

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

RECORDING AND PRESERVING OLD STORIES

RECORDING AND PRESERVING OLD STORIES

A number of Hindu religious stories that were in circulation earlier were written down around the same time. These include the Puranas. Purana literally means old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, or Parvati. They also contain details on how they were to be worshipped. Besides, there are accounts about the creation of the world, and about kings.

The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them.

Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. Some of you may be familiar with these stories.

The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins. This was a war to gain control of the throne of the Kurus, and their capital, Hastinapura. The story itself was an old one but was written down in the form in which we know it today, about 1500 years ago. Both the Puranas the Vedas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been compiled by Vyasa. The Bhagavad Gita, about which you learnt in Chapter 9(TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS), was also included in the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. His wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named Ravana, and Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. He won and returned to Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory. Like the Mahabharata, this was an old story that was now written down. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

Activity:

There are several versions (many of which are performed) of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, popular amongst people in different parts of the subcontinent. Find out about a version in your state.

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

STORIES BY ORDINARY PEOPLE – THE MONKEY KING

STORIES BY ORDINARY PEOPLE – THE MONKEY KING

Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced, and performed plays. Some of these are preserved in collections of stories such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, which were written down around this time. Stories from the Jatakas were often shown on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta.

Here is one such story:

The story of the monkey king

Once upon a time, there was a great monkey king, who lived on the banks of the Ganga in the Himalayas, with 80,000 followers. They fed on the fruit of a special mango tree, which were very sweet. Such exquisite mangoes did not grow on the plains. One day, a ripe mango fell into the river and floated all the way to Varanasi. There the king of the city who was bathing in the river found it and was amazed when he tasted it. He asked the foresters of his kingdom whether they could find the tree for him, and they led him all the way to the Himalayas. There, the king and his courtiers had their fill of mangoes. At night, the king discovered that the monkeys were also feasting on the fruit, and decided to kill them.

However, the king of the monkeys worked out a plan to save his followers. He broke off branches of the mango tree, and tied them to form a ‘bridge’ across the river, and held on to one end till all his followers crossed over.

Exhausted with the effort, he fell down and lay dying.

The human king saw what had happened, and tried unsuccessfully to revive the monkey. When he died, the king mourned his death and paid him full respect.

This story is shown on a piece of sculpture found from a stupa at Bharhut in central India.

Activity:

1.Can you identify which parts of the story are shown in the sculpture?

2.Why do you think these were chosen?

3.In what ways is the monkey king similar to or different from the kings you read about in Chapters 5(KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC) and 10(NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS)?

4. Find out more and tell a story from one of the epics.

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK

WRITING BOOKS ON SCIENCE

WRITING BOOKS ON SCIENCE

This was also the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician, and astronomer, wrote a book in Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting every day. He developed a scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly as accurate as of the formula we use today. Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskaracharya were some other mathematicians and astronomers who made several discoveries. Try and find out more about them.

Zero

While numerals had been used earlier, mathematicians in India now invented a special symbol for zero. This system of counting was adapted by the Arabs and then spread to Europe. It continues to be in use throughout the world.

Ayurveda

Ayurveda is a well-known system of health science that was developed in ancient India. The two famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) and Sushruta (c. 4th century C.E.) Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine. In his treatise, Susruta Samhita, Sushruta speaks about elaborate surgical procedures.

Elsewhere

Paper has become a part of our daily lives. The books we read are printed on paper, and we use paper for writing. Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by a man named Cai Lun. He beat plant fibres, cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked these in water, and then pressed, drained and dried the pulp to create paper. Even today handmade paper is made through a similar process.

The technique of making paper was a closely guarded secret for centuries. It reached Korea about 1400 years ago and spread to Japan soon after. It was known in Baghdad about 1800 years ago. From Baghdad it spread to Europe, Africa, and other parts of Asia including the subcontinent.

Activity:

1. The Romans used a system of counting without using zero. Try and find out more about it.

2. What were manuscripts in early India made out of? (Hint: See Chapter 1(WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN?))

3. Try and list as many uses of paper as you can.

Source: This topic is taken from NCERT TEXTBOOK